Microbiology (41)
Foundations
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Microbiology, part 8: Foundations - Differential Staining Techniques
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDifferential staining techniques, including: gram, acid fast, capsule, and endospore stains. The general steps for each of these staining procedures, how to interpret the results, and why those results occur.
Microbiology, part 8: Foundations - Differential Staining Techniques
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDifferential staining techniques, including: gram, acid fast, capsule, and endospore stains. The general steps for each of these staining procedures, how to interpret the results, and why those results occur.
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Microbiology, part 7: Foundations - Dyes & Stains
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCommon dyes and stains used in Microbiology. How a specimen is prepared for light microscopy using wet mount or fixation (heat or chemical). The difference between basic vs acidic dye. The...
Microbiology, part 7: Foundations - Dyes & Stains
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCommon dyes and stains used in Microbiology. How a specimen is prepared for light microscopy using wet mount or fixation (heat or chemical). The difference between basic vs acidic dye. The...
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Microbiology, part 6: Foundations - Review of Microscopes
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNReview of the different types of microscopes used in microbiology, including: darkfield, phase contrast, differential interference contrast, fluorescence, confocal, electron, and scanning probe.
Microbiology, part 6: Foundations - Review of Microscopes
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNReview of the different types of microscopes used in microbiology, including: darkfield, phase contrast, differential interference contrast, fluorescence, confocal, electron, and scanning probe.
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Microbiology, part 5: Foundations - Microscope Terminology & Brightfield Microscope
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNRefraction, refractive index, lens, focal point, magnification, resolution, numerical aperture, contrast, and oil immersion lens. Plus, key parts of a Brightfield microscope, including: illuminator, diaphragm, stage, condenser vs. objective vs....
Microbiology, part 5: Foundations - Microscope Terminology & Brightfield Microscope
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNRefraction, refractive index, lens, focal point, magnification, resolution, numerical aperture, contrast, and oil immersion lens. Plus, key parts of a Brightfield microscope, including: illuminator, diaphragm, stage, condenser vs. objective vs....
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Microbiology, part 4: Foundations - Chemistry Review - Macromolecules
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMacromolecules overview: Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, & nucleic acids. Proteins' role/structure; amino acid structure. Carbohydrates' role/structure; the difference between mono-, di-, and polysaccharides. Lipids' role; key types: saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, & sterols. Nucleic...
Microbiology, part 4: Foundations - Chemistry Review - Macromolecules
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMacromolecules overview: Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, & nucleic acids. Proteins' role/structure; amino acid structure. Carbohydrates' role/structure; the difference between mono-, di-, and polysaccharides. Lipids' role; key types: saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, & sterols. Nucleic...
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Microbiology, part 3: Foundations - Chemistry Review - Atoms, Chemical Bonds, Water, pH
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNA quick review of chemistry topics that are important to know for microbiology. This includes parts of an atom (proton, electron, neutron), electronegativity, ions (cations and anions), chemical bonds (nonpolar...
Microbiology, part 3: Foundations - Chemistry Review - Atoms, Chemical Bonds, Water, pH
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNA quick review of chemistry topics that are important to know for microbiology. This includes parts of an atom (proton, electron, neutron), electronegativity, ions (cations and anions), chemical bonds (nonpolar...
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Microbiology, part 2: Foundations - Overview of Microorganisms
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe three domain system used to classify organisms and the key differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. An overview of the following microorganisms: bacteria, archaea, protozoa, algae, parasites, fungi, and viruses.
Microbiology, part 2: Foundations - Overview of Microorganisms
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe three domain system used to classify organisms and the key differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. An overview of the following microorganisms: bacteria, archaea, protozoa, algae, parasites, fungi, and viruses.
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Microbiology, part 1: Foundations - History of Microbiology
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNKey people and concepts from the history of microbiology that you will likely need to know for your microbiology exam. This includes: Robert Hooke, cell theory, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, spontaneous...
Microbiology, part 1: Foundations - History of Microbiology
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNKey people and concepts from the history of microbiology that you will likely need to know for your microbiology exam. This includes: Robert Hooke, cell theory, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, spontaneous...
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
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Microbiology, part 16: Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes - Membrane Transport
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMembrane transport. This includes a comparison of passive transport and active transport. Three types of passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. Effect of different osmotic solutions (hypertonic, isotonic,...
Microbiology, part 16: Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes - Membrane Transport
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMembrane transport. This includes a comparison of passive transport and active transport. Three types of passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. Effect of different osmotic solutions (hypertonic, isotonic,...
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Microbiology, part 15: Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes - Endosymbiotic Theory
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe endosymbiotic theory, including key pieces of evidence that support the endosymbiotic theory.
Microbiology, part 15: Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes - Endosymbiotic Theory
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe endosymbiotic theory, including key pieces of evidence that support the endosymbiotic theory.
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Microbiology, part 14: Eukaryotes - Plasma Membrane, Cell Wall, ECM, Flagella, & Cilia
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDiscussion of the eukaryotic cells. Overview of the plasma membrane, cell wall, extracellular matrix, flagella, and cilia in eukaryotes.
Microbiology, part 14: Eukaryotes - Plasma Membrane, Cell Wall, ECM, Flagella, & Cilia
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDiscussion of the eukaryotic cells. Overview of the plasma membrane, cell wall, extracellular matrix, flagella, and cilia in eukaryotes.
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Microbiology, part 13: Eukaryotes - Structures Inside the Plasma Membrane
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNA review of structures found inside the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell. This includes the nucleus, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, centrosomes, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and...
Microbiology, part 13: Eukaryotes - Structures Inside the Plasma Membrane
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNA review of structures found inside the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell. This includes the nucleus, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, centrosomes, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and...
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Microbiology, part 12: Prokaryotes - Glycocalyx, Fimbriae & Pili, & Flagella
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe structures found outside the cell wall in prokaryotic cells, including the glycocalyx, fimbriae, pili, & flagella. Structure of a flagellum, arrangements of flagella (e.g., atrichous, monotrichous, amphitrichous, lophotrichous, peritrichous),...
Microbiology, part 12: Prokaryotes - Glycocalyx, Fimbriae & Pili, & Flagella
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe structures found outside the cell wall in prokaryotic cells, including the glycocalyx, fimbriae, pili, & flagella. Structure of a flagellum, arrangements of flagella (e.g., atrichous, monotrichous, amphitrichous, lophotrichous, peritrichous),...
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Microbiology, part 11: Prokaryotes - Plasma Membrane & Cell Wall
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe plasma membrane and cell wall in a prokaryote cell. The phospholipid bilayer, selective permeability, the "fluid mosaic model", embedded proteins (transmembrane proteins and peripheral proteins), glycoproteins and glycolipids. Components...
Microbiology, part 11: Prokaryotes - Plasma Membrane & Cell Wall
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe plasma membrane and cell wall in a prokaryote cell. The phospholipid bilayer, selective permeability, the "fluid mosaic model", embedded proteins (transmembrane proteins and peripheral proteins), glycoproteins and glycolipids. Components...
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Microbiology, part 10: Prokaryotes - Structures Inside the Plasma Membrane
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNStructures found inside the plasma membrane of the prokaryotic cell. This includes the cytoplasm, cytosol, nucleoid, plasmids, ribosomes, and inclusions. Endospores, vegetative cells, sporulation, and germination.
Microbiology, part 10: Prokaryotes - Structures Inside the Plasma Membrane
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNStructures found inside the plasma membrane of the prokaryotic cell. This includes the cytoplasm, cytosol, nucleoid, plasmids, ribosomes, and inclusions. Endospores, vegetative cells, sporulation, and germination.
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Microbiology, part 9: Prokaryotes - Shapes & Arrangements
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDifferent types of prokaryote cell shapes (coccus, bacillus, coccobacillus, vibrio, spirillum, spirochete). Different cocci arrangements (diplococci, streptococci, tetrads, sarcinae, and staphylococci) and bacilli arrangements (diplobacilli, streptobacilli, palisades).
Microbiology, part 9: Prokaryotes - Shapes & Arrangements
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDifferent types of prokaryote cell shapes (coccus, bacillus, coccobacillus, vibrio, spirillum, spirochete). Different cocci arrangements (diplococci, streptococci, tetrads, sarcinae, and staphylococci) and bacilli arrangements (diplobacilli, streptobacilli, palisades).
Metabolism
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Microbiology, part 25: Metabolism - Biogeochemical Cycles
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNBiogeochemical cycles, including the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the sulfur cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.
Microbiology, part 25: Metabolism - Biogeochemical Cycles
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNBiogeochemical cycles, including the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the sulfur cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.
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Microbiology, part 24: Metabolism - Photosynthesis
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNA high level overview of photosynthesis, including light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (i.e., Calvin Cycle). Photophosphorylation and the difference between oxygenic photosynthesis and anoxygenic photosynthesis.
Microbiology, part 24: Metabolism - Photosynthesis
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNA high level overview of photosynthesis, including light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (i.e., Calvin Cycle). Photophosphorylation and the difference between oxygenic photosynthesis and anoxygenic photosynthesis.
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Microbiology, part 23: Metabolism - Lipid & Protein Catabolism
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNLipid catabolism and protein catabolism, including the key enzymes that break down lipids and proteins.
Microbiology, part 23: Metabolism - Lipid & Protein Catabolism
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNLipid catabolism and protein catabolism, including the key enzymes that break down lipids and proteins.
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Microbiology, part 22: Metabolism - Fermentation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNFermentation, including lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation. Difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration.
Microbiology, part 22: Metabolism - Fermentation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNFermentation, including lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation. Difference between fermentation and anaerobic respiration.
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Microbiology, part 21: Metabolism - Cellular Respiration - Citric Acid Cycle & Oxidative Phosphorylation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCellular respiration, focusing on the citric acid cycle (i.e., Krebs cycle) and oxidative phosphorylation. Inputs and outputs for the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain. Chemiosmosis, and the...
Microbiology, part 21: Metabolism - Cellular Respiration - Citric Acid Cycle & Oxidative Phosphorylation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCellular respiration, focusing on the citric acid cycle (i.e., Krebs cycle) and oxidative phosphorylation. Inputs and outputs for the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain. Chemiosmosis, and the...
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Microbiology, part 20: Metabolism - Cellular Respiration - Glycolysis & Transition Reaction
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCellular respiration. Aerobic respiration vs anaerobic respiration. Steps involved in glycolysis and the transition reaction (i.e., bridge reaction).
Microbiology, part 20: Metabolism - Cellular Respiration - Glycolysis & Transition Reaction
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCellular respiration. Aerobic respiration vs anaerobic respiration. Steps involved in glycolysis and the transition reaction (i.e., bridge reaction).
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Microbiology, part 19: Metabolism - Carbon and Energy Source
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNHow to classify organisms based on their carbon source and energy source. Phototrophs vs. Chemotrophs, and autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs. Photoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.
Microbiology, part 19: Metabolism - Carbon and Energy Source
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNHow to classify organisms based on their carbon source and energy source. Phototrophs vs. Chemotrophs, and autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs. Photoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.
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Microbiology, part 18: Metabolism - Enzymes
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNEnzymes. How an enzyme is a catalyst that lowers the activation energy in chemical reactions. Factors that affect enzyme activity, including pH, temperature, and substrate concentration. Structure of an enzyme,...
Microbiology, part 18: Metabolism - Enzymes
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNEnzymes. How an enzyme is a catalyst that lowers the activation energy in chemical reactions. Factors that affect enzyme activity, including pH, temperature, and substrate concentration. Structure of an enzyme,...
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Microbiology, part 17: Metabolism - Chemical Reactions & Energy Carriers
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMicrobial metabolism. Chemical reactions, the components of a chemical reaction (reactants, products), and the types of chemical reactions (synthesis reaction, decomposition reaction, single replacement reaction, double replacement reaction, reversible reaction)....
Microbiology, part 17: Metabolism - Chemical Reactions & Energy Carriers
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMicrobial metabolism. Chemical reactions, the components of a chemical reaction (reactants, products), and the types of chemical reactions (synthesis reaction, decomposition reaction, single replacement reaction, double replacement reaction, reversible reaction)....
Growth
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Microbiology, part 31: Growth - Culture Media
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCulture media. Difference between chemically defined media, complex media, selective media, differential media, and enrichment media.
Microbiology, part 31: Growth - Culture Media
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNCulture media. Difference between chemically defined media, complex media, selective media, differential media, and enrichment media.
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Microbiology, part 30: Growth - Microbial Growth Requirements
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNRequirements for microbial growth. Oxygen requirements and the difference between obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, aerotolerant anaerobes, microaerophiles, and capnophiles. Temperature requirements and the difference between mesophiles, psychrotrophs, psychrophiles,...
Microbiology, part 30: Growth - Microbial Growth Requirements
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNRequirements for microbial growth. Oxygen requirements and the difference between obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, aerotolerant anaerobes, microaerophiles, and capnophiles. Temperature requirements and the difference between mesophiles, psychrotrophs, psychrophiles,...
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Microbiology, part 29: Growth - Biofilms & Quorum Sensing
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNBiofilms, including what a biofilm is, how biofilms form, and key characteristics of biofilms. Quorum sensing, including what quorum sensing is and how it works.
Microbiology, part 29: Growth - Biofilms & Quorum Sensing
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNBiofilms, including what a biofilm is, how biofilms form, and key characteristics of biofilms. Quorum sensing, including what quorum sensing is and how it works.
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Microbiology, part 28: Growth - Measurement of Bacterial Growth
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDirect methods of measuring bacterial growth, including a direct cell count, plate count, membrane filtration, and the Most Probable Number method (MPN method). Steps involved in serial dilution in preparation...
Microbiology, part 28: Growth - Measurement of Bacterial Growth
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDirect methods of measuring bacterial growth, including a direct cell count, plate count, membrane filtration, and the Most Probable Number method (MPN method). Steps involved in serial dilution in preparation...
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Microbiology, part 27: Growth - Plating Methods
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNPlating methods, including the pour plate method and spread plate method. Basic steps involved in each method and what kind of bacteria can be grown using each method.
Microbiology, part 27: Growth - Plating Methods
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNPlating methods, including the pour plate method and spread plate method. Basic steps involved in each method and what kind of bacteria can be grown using each method.
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Microbiology, part 26: Growth - Binary Fission & Bacterial Growth
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNBinary fission, including the steps involved in binary fission. "generation time" or "doubling time", and the different bacterial growth curve phases. This includes the lag phase, log phase, stationary phase,...
Microbiology, part 26: Growth - Binary Fission & Bacterial Growth
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNBinary fission, including the steps involved in binary fission. "generation time" or "doubling time", and the different bacterial growth curve phases. This includes the lag phase, log phase, stationary phase,...
Genetics
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Microbiology, part 41: Genetics - Biotechnology
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNTerms and concepts related to biotechnology that you likely have to know for your Microbiology class, including genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, transgenic organisms, molecular cloning, restriction enzymes, sticky ends...
Microbiology, part 41: Genetics - Biotechnology
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNTerms and concepts related to biotechnology that you likely have to know for your Microbiology class, including genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, transgenic organisms, molecular cloning, restriction enzymes, sticky ends...
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Microbiology, part 40: Genetics - Gene Regulation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNGene regulation; operons and their parts, including the promoter, operator, and structural genes; regulatory genes and the difference between an activator and repressor; constitutively expressed genes & examples; repressible operons,...
Microbiology, part 40: Genetics - Gene Regulation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNGene regulation; operons and their parts, including the promoter, operator, and structural genes; regulatory genes and the difference between an activator and repressor; constitutively expressed genes & examples; repressible operons,...
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Microbiology, part 39: Genetics - Horizontal Gene Transfer
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNHorizontal gene transfer; an overview of transformation, transduction, conjugation, and transposons; conjugation and its process; transposons, including the difference between replicative and nonreplicative transposons.
Microbiology, part 39: Genetics - Horizontal Gene Transfer
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNHorizontal gene transfer; an overview of transformation, transduction, conjugation, and transposons; conjugation and its process; transposons, including the difference between replicative and nonreplicative transposons.
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Microbiology, part 38: Genetics - Replica Plating & Ames Test
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNReplica Plating and the Ames Test: their purposes and an example of each procedure.
Microbiology, part 38: Genetics - Replica Plating & Ames Test
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNReplica Plating and the Ames Test: their purposes and an example of each procedure.
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Microbiology, part 37: Genetics - Mutagens & DNA Repair
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNKey types of chemical mutagens, including nucleoside analogs, nucleotide-modifying agents, and intercalating agents; two types of radiation that can cause mutations - ionizing and non-ionizing; different mechanisms for repairing DNA...
Microbiology, part 37: Genetics - Mutagens & DNA Repair
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNKey types of chemical mutagens, including nucleoside analogs, nucleotide-modifying agents, and intercalating agents; two types of radiation that can cause mutations - ionizing and non-ionizing; different mechanisms for repairing DNA...
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Microbiology, part 36: Genetics - Mutations
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMutations, including spontaneous vs. induced; point mutations & types (silent mutations, missense mutations, and nonsense mutations), how each affects the resulting polypeptide; frameshift mutation and example.
Microbiology, part 36: Genetics - Mutations
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNMutations, including spontaneous vs. induced; point mutations & types (silent mutations, missense mutations, and nonsense mutations), how each affects the resulting polypeptide; frameshift mutation and example.
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Microbiology, part 35: Genetics - Translation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNTranslation of mRNA into a protein; the genetic code, including the start codon, stop (or nonsense) codons, degeneracy of the genetic code, and the wobble position; the steps involved in...
Microbiology, part 35: Genetics - Translation
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNTranslation of mRNA into a protein; the genetic code, including the start codon, stop (or nonsense) codons, degeneracy of the genetic code, and the wobble position; the steps involved in...
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Microbiology, part 34: Genetics - Transcription
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNTranscription; the steps involved in transcription, including initiation, elongation, and termination. Key differences in transcription between a prokaryotic cells and a eukaryotic cell; key processing steps that a primary transcript...
Microbiology, part 34: Genetics - Transcription
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNTranscription; the steps involved in transcription, including initiation, elongation, and termination. Key differences in transcription between a prokaryotic cells and a eukaryotic cell; key processing steps that a primary transcript...
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Microbiology, part 33: Genetics - DNA Replication
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDNA replication in a prokaryotic cell; semiconservative replication and the steps involved in semiconservative replication (i.e., initiation, elongation, and termination). The various enzymes involved in the replication process (e.g., gyrase,...
Microbiology, part 33: Genetics - DNA Replication
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNDNA replication in a prokaryotic cell; semiconservative replication and the steps involved in semiconservative replication (i.e., initiation, elongation, and termination). The various enzymes involved in the replication process (e.g., gyrase,...
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Microbiology, part 32: Genetics - Nucleotides & DNA Structure
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe structure of a nucleotide, including a 5-carbon sugar molecule, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The structure of DNA, including a description of the sugar-phosphate backbone, double helix, and base...
Microbiology, part 32: Genetics - Nucleotides & DNA Structure
Cathy Parkes RN, BSN, PHN, CWCNThe structure of a nucleotide, including a 5-carbon sugar molecule, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The structure of DNA, including a description of the sugar-phosphate backbone, double helix, and base...
